Black Hawk Down: Narrative Theory Analysis

Black Hawk Down: Narrative Theory Analysis In 1993, over one hundred US soldiers were dropped into the urban heart of Mogadishu, Somalia. The purpose was to perform an operation to capture a violent warlord by the name of Mohamed Farrah Aidid and his closest members. The purpose of the operation was to quell the ongoing civil war. The war was taking a devastating toll on the civilian population as supply and food shipments from Red Cross agencies were hoarded. Starvation was the warlords main weapon. It was decided by the US that intervention was the only way to prevent the continuation of the atrocities. Unfortunately, the US soldiers were not prepared to face the tactical nightmare Mogadishu would become when two of their helicopters were shot down during the operation. All the stories of the soldiers involved were later recorded and written in a book by Mark Bowden, entitled Black Hawk Down. It was this book that a screenplay and eventually a feature film would be based on in the 2001 adaptation Black Hawk Down, directed b y Ridley Scott. If anyone had previously seen a Ridley Scott film, they would know that he is meticulous in creating detail and realism. Black Hawk Down does nothing less than emanate this style of directing. He has helped push a new wave in directing style, where realism in situations and characters account for as much of the movie as the plot. These both apply to narrative and genre theories. The new elements that have been inserted into the creation of the war movie genre and narrative have added new depth and meaning to what we see and understand about the people who fight our wars. The image of the US soldier has been elevated to almost mythic proportions, partly due to ad campaigns, but also to the portrayal of war and the realism that moves us closer to the fighting than we can ever imagine. The beauty is that the answers are explained by philosophical geniuses who have all contributed theories to understanding why we think in certain ways and experience certain pleasures. Ev erything we interpret is relative to our own experiences. The purpose of this essay is to analyze Black Hawk Down using the various narrative theories of these intellectuals. Some provide thoughts on the narration of the story such as Propp, Todorov, Barthes and Levi Strauss, while others look at the genres and their various approaches to creation and production; finally, semiotic analysis allows us to know how we interpret the images we see (both syntagmatically and paradigmatically). Narrative theory applies to the structure of the production, whether it is in film, television, literature or radio. Analysts of narrative theory usually grasp the basic structure of the particular genre before viewing the production based on formulaic series of events associated with that genre. These series of events that have an appearance of repetition, according to Valdimir Propp, are called narratemes. According to Propp, depending on the medium/genre, the events can be predetermined by using his 32 narrative functions and 8 spheres of action. The medium does not have to include all 32 of his functions, but the ones they do contain will always happen in a specific order. Another theorist by the name of Todorov came along and simplified what Propp had been writing about. He generalized narratives to follow the path of equilibrium-disequilibrium-equilibrium. This is where Black Hawk Down takes a turn to the unique side. Because of the nature of the conflict, equilibrium never tru ly existed from the beginning. There may have been equilibrium in the US troops position, but the overall conflict presides over any minuscule balance. The movie begins panning over malnourished Somalis affected by the starvation campaign of Farrah Aidid while text scrolls across the screen explaining the situation. The first glimpse of US troops occurs here when the viewer watches them fly overhead in an SH-60 Black Hawk helicopter. The troops begin to watch a Red Cross shipment of food and supplies getting hoarded by the warlord Aidids men. The disequilibrium we had set in the beginning of the movie gets thrown to another level when civilians are shot attempting to take some food. This is where the movie continues to present its uniqueness. As the movie progresses, nothing goes as planned during the operation to capture the warlord. In the process of putting troops on the ground, two helicopters are shot out of the sky by Somali guerillas, further pushing the stability of the movi e. This is why Todorov generalized about the narrative theory: not everything follows a standard, and the ones that dont stand out, good or bad. In this case, the movie created a cinematic experience like most great war movies: immersive, intense and filled with feminine and masculine narratives (discussed later on). The movie eventually reached as much equilibrium as allotted due to the situation. In the end, 17 soldiers had been killed for an operation that was meant to be more than a grab-and-go. But one key aspect to Todorovs theory is that the ending is ideologically significant. How it achieves this closure reveals how narratives function to maintain/challenge established power relations in society. Quite close to how the movie began, it ended, but this time with closure and equilibrium. The music and setting were serene with a feeling of despair, fitting the mood of both dying and/or dead civilians/soldiers because of the conflict in Mogadishu. To the soldiers at the end of t he movie, it no longer became a fight for their own lives, but that for their fellow soldiers. A bond throughout the movie was created between them, and although some were lost to the fighting, the bond never disappeared. This is visible at the end of the movie when Josh Harnetts character Eversmann spoke to a fallen soldier about returning home and talking to his parents about who he was, what he did, and why they should be proud of him. It was an underhanded way of making us look at relationships the soldiers built instead of letting us take a step back and ask why they were there in the first place. What makes this so ideologically significant? It is in the beginning of the movie when disequilibrium was first established: there were soldiers that were aware of this situation and asked what the purpose of the occupation was. This is why the ending of the movie is ideologically significant to established power relations, those between soldiers and their commanders, and how it came to a sincere closure to make everything seem justified. The idea that there are characters within a scripted movie that are given these lines reflects the observational talent the screenplay writers and directors have. It makes a bold statement to society that we are aware. Along with Propp and Todorov, another man by the name of Roland Barthes came and attempted, successfully, to answer the question of the narrative theory. In Roland Barthes theory, he used five codes in order to form a network of meaning. This network, in turn, provides a framework for analyzing texts or in our case, a war movie. The codes are as following: action, enigma, semic, symbolic and cultural. Lets begin with the idea of a cultural code. The cultural code is constituted by the points at which the text refers to common bodies of knowledge through a social construct. This makes the viewer have to have prior knowledge in order to understand the reference. These references are easily-identified traditions that could be scholarly, historical, mythological or stereotypical. In this case, the reference, and respectively the entire movie, was based on a time period in 1993 when the US attempted to quell a civil war. So between the traditions of history, scholar, myth, and stereotyping, history plays a large role. Black Hawk Down was created almost 10 years after the event. This gave the public enough time to move past the events, but also after only 10 years, it could still be on the minds of people who were old enough to comprehend and understand the conflict. To continue with Barthes codes, symbolic would be the next easiest to interpret. It exists to explicate the complexities of an element in the text. One of the most important entrance points into the symbolic is the antithetical because concepts suggest their opposites, which is argued by Levi-Strauss in the binary opposites theory. But the symbolic code does not merely break the code into binaries; instead it eradicates the boundary between opposites creating a disturbance in classification. (Coward) There are many elements to this movie that can be seen as symbolic. As stated earlier, the image of a US soldier means so much more that what can be seen on the surface. This movie attempts, and in reality, accomplishes, the symbolic image of a soldier. The image gets elevated to another level, the level of being mythic. To quote Eric Bana who plays Hoot, Whe n I get home peoplell ask me, Hey Hoot, why do ya do it man? Why? Just some war junkie? Ya know what Ill say? I wont say a goddamn word. Why? They wont understand. They wont understand why we do it. They wont understand that its about the men next to you, and thats it. This is what embodies the American soldier today. It is about defending the country, yes, but more so about keeping the man next to you alive so he can go back home someday. Another symbolic image, which is the basis for the movie, is the downing of not one, but two of our helicopters. We have two massive machines facilitating the most advanced technology available that get shot down by a bunch of ill-trained guerillas from a country torn by war. More so than just that, after the second helicopter was overrun by guerillas and civilians, the military machine became nothing more than a toy with young kids jumping on the rotors. The image of this alone creates more than a feeling of defeat because it was scaled down from being a symbol of Americas productive might to nothing. Two more codes written by Barthes include the semic and action (also known as proairetic). These codes are easily interlaced with other theories. Semic is closely related to semiotic analysis which focuses upon pieces of data in order to suggest abstract concepts. Semiotic analysis is on the conscious of the person viewing the object or product. We see or hear something and chose to recognize it as we have been taught. If we do not recognize it, we try to group it into a category in which we do understand. Semiotics will always be an interesting concept to study because of its conscious and subconscious nature. We recognize that the movie is based on real events, with that being the sign, but the individual stories paint the signified. On the other end, to look at syntagmatic codes, all you have to do is look at the narrative because it refers to how the product uses/used a series of images to create meaning in the viewers mind. The proairetic code is closely related to the texts nar rative structure. The basis of the proairetic is the dependency of syntagmatic codes along with the narrative theory (already discussed) as to understand the meaning of the images. The final code in Barthes theory is enigma, or hermeneutic. Elements of the text that contribute to these codes are the devices used to define and then reveal or solve a mystery. What keeps us intrigued is the process in which they solve the mystery presented in the beginning of the episode, hence the hermeneutic code. Ricoeur distinguishes between two forms of hermeneutics: a hermeneutics of faith which aims to restore meaning to a text and a hermeneutics of suspicion which attempts to decode meanings that are disguised. (Josselson) Finally, another contributor to the criticism and theory of the narration in stories was Levi-Strauss. He believed in the theory of binary oppositions, underscoring the concept of differences. From birth, we learn differences rather than relations. Males distinguish themselves by images and understanding that they are not like their mothers, rather than the fact they are like their fathers. Barthes has a sound theory in the case of narratives, but it can also be tied into Todorovs. Although through Barthes we look at the minuscule vs. the big picture, little equilibriums can be found through binary oppositions. The idea is that binary opposition is an inherent, structurally based concept on the Western tendency to group into hierarchy. This is a conception derived from Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss linguist whose ideas laid the foundation for many of the significant developments in linguistics in the 20th century. His work in structuralism is a tangible point of departure that moves us into the post-structural criticism that is deconstruction. Throughout the movie there are little battles between these binary oppositions that create balance to the characters and plot, and therefore, the narrative. It is in this way that characters create conflict and story. Because of the nature of military action, you will always have a mix of young and old, those who are eager to get into a fight and those wish to make it back. There is a sense of wisdom in the older characters where little things make a difference. One great example would be after the convoy, coming back from Mogadishu, refuels and rearms to get back to the fight. The leader Struecker says very little to a young man who has lost the will to continue because he has seen death around him. Its what you do now that makes a difference. That is the kind of wisdom expected from leaders. They push a person to think hard about how they want to be remembered. In this case, the young man Thomas, heroically grabs his g ear and jumps into one of the last Humvees to return to the fight. It is here where the little battles are won. Another great example of the binary opposite would be the difference between America and Somalia. In the movie, you have a highly trained force of soldiers who become quickly outnumbered by ill-trained guerillas. Looking beyond that, the conflict can be portrayed as a Third World country versus an international superpower. Along with the theories, there is 1 more key point that needs to be made on narrative theories. Narrative structures are experienced differently from person to person, but there are two groups where the content allows us to make generalizations (while there still may be some anomalies): male and female genders. Producers of the content that is viewed, read, or listened to by these two distinct audiences must appreciate the differences between the genders. The feminine narrative appeals to women because it involves relationships and complex issues with characters while masculine narratives appeal to men based on action and multiple climax points. Black Hawk Down cannot be labeled as a chick flick, but it is feminine narrative. This can be determined by the relationships and complex emotions displayed between the soldiers to each other. The movie has many climactic moments, but it also reaches out to the audience to be understanding of the position the men have been put in to. It is ho w they interact that will determine their fate giving an aura of brotherhood. But, in recent years complications have arisen as how to define shows or movies. Movies can no longer be just feminine or masculine or else the audience will not be pulled in. This can be attributed to the change in social behavior and norms. We are becoming progressively equal in the male/female world. Falling back to the 1950s at the height of streamlined sexism, creating a movie appealing to one sex or the other would have been appropriate. But today as audiences tend to be more socially adept, directors and writers must look to create not just a movie, but a complex experience. This is why narratives are beginning to have very complex, multi-episodic stories that are not only using both gender narratives, but also the blending of genres. Black Hawk Down was a blending of fact and fiction into an action/war drama. The US/UN mission in Somalia had originally been to assist in the distribution of food and supplies to thousands of starving Somalis. Farrah Aidid was the warlord who used this aid to consolidate his power base. It was this reason that led the US to create the operation. But instead of a one-hour operation, the US soldiers walked into the middle of a Somali civil war. This movie had not only the cooperation of the US military, but also the use of weapon systems and soldiers, some of whom were involved in Somalia. The movie is unique, and historical. It demonstrates the heroism that continues to this day, of those Americans who volunteer to serve their country, and to be willing to sacrifice their lives for people in countries not their ownà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦The movie highlights the officers and NCOs who fought their way out of hell, some who returned a second time to ensure that no one was left behind. This cost them dearly. Their families and brothers in arms today keep their memories alive by honoring them with decorations ranging from the Medal of Honor to the Purple Heart. I was privileged to know and serve beside some of them. While this movie was being filmed, cast members and crew were asked to do their best in portraying the real heroes, keeping cliches at a minimum, and honor the memory of those lost. While there are composites of participants, there are also real people who carry on the traditions of the services today, from Col. McKnight to W/O Durant and others. Though a Blackhawk went down, the Rangers today still Lead The Way. -Jim Banzai McClain. If it were not for philosophers who have contributed theories to understanding why we think in certain ways and experience certain pleasures, nothing could be logically explained. Everything we interpret is relative to our own experiences. Propp, Todorov, Barthes and Levi Strauss, all made narrative theory the driving factor in crit ical analysis of modern media. Bruner, Jerome. Acts of meaning; 1990, Cambridge, Massachussets : Harvard University Press. Freeman, M. Why narrative? Hermeneutics, historical understanding, and the significance of stories; Journal of Narrative and Life History; 1997 Vol. 7, p169-176, 8p. Grà ¼nbaum, Thor. Action between Plot and Discourse. Semiotica 165.1-4 (2007): 295-314. Hà ¤nninen, Vilma. A Model of Narrative Circulation. Narrative Inquiry 14.1 (2004): 69-85. Human Communication as Narration: Toward a Philosophy of Reason, Value, and Action; Fisher, Walter R.; 1987, Columbia : U of South Carolina. Josselson, Ruthellen. The Hermeneutics of Faith and the Hermeneutics of Suspicion. Narrative Inquiry 14.1 (2004): 1-28. Redick, Kip, and Lori Underwood. Rationality and Narrative: A Relationship of Priority. Philosophy Rhetoric 40.4 (2007): 394-405. S/Z By: Coward, Rosalind; pp. 176-81 IN: Newton, K. M. (ed.); Twentieth-Century Literary Theory: A Reader. New York, NY: St. Martins; 1997. xix, 306 pp. The Way We Think: Conceptual Blending and the Minds Hidden Complexities; Fauconnier, Gilles; Turner, Mark; 2002, New York. Wyatt, Neal. Exploring Nonfiction. Library Journal 132.3 (2007): 32.

History of Psychology Essay

I declare that this assignment is my own work and has not been submitted in any form for another unit, degree or diploma at any university or other institute of tertiary education. Information derived from the published or unpublished work of others has been acknowledged in the text and a list of references is given. I warrant that any disks and/or computer files submitted as part of this assignment have been checked for viruses and reported clean. Student signature: __________________________ Date: __________________________ Abstract This paper aims to trace and analyze the historical development of the subjective nature of truth, the sources and reactions towards the theory. The implications of the theory of subjective truth are vast since a position on the nature of truth permeates one’s personal life goals and purposes, cognition, and morality of individual and hence also affects research methodology and psychotherapy. Subjectivism focuses on individuals’ thoughts and feelings as well as the proposition that knowledge of humans can never be separated from the knower. This literature review covers the existence of truth as being subjective during the time of the early Greek philosophers, present within Hellenistic and Roman psychology and persisting within romantic and existential philosophy, humanistic psychology and the approaches of the postmodernists in the mid-1960s. Keywords: subjective truth, history, postmodernism The Subjective Nature Of Truth: A Historical Development The constant tension of whether truth is objective or subjective has long since existed throughout history and continues to pervade in current schools of psychotherapies. â€Å"Science versus Humanism† is the term Conway (1992) gives to the philosophical dimension along which the values underlying the theories of psychologists differ. A scientific approach to psychology is based on the epistemological tradition of objectivism. Mahoney (1989) summarizes objectivism as beliefs that an objective and separate ‘real world’ lies beyond the organism, independent of perception and that valid knowledge is ultimately rendered from our sensory experiences, and can be totally separated from the knower (Mahoney, 1989 as cited in Conway, 1992). In contrast, the humanistic approach to psychology is based on the epistemological tradition of subjectivism which focuses on thoughts and feelings. Furthermore, knowledge of humans can never be separated from the knower (Conway, 1992). Due to different theories on the nature of truth, methodology for observing consciousness and the role of inner experience differ. The human science approach to psychology seeks to explain behavior in terms of a person’s subjective existence (Kendler, 2005). Humanistic psychology and philosophical phenomenology are two schools of thought that employ the human science interpretation of psychology (Kendler, 2005). The implications of the theory of the relativity of truth is seen in the individuals personal life goals, purpose of life, cognitive styles, morality, ethics, counseling goals, research methodology and conceptualization of definitions. Due to the great relevance of the topic to psychology, this essay traces and analyzes the historical development of the subjective nature of truth, the sources and reactions towards the theory. Early Greek Philosophers and Hellenistic and Roman Psychology The Sophists were a group of philosophers who believed that nothing is inherently right or wrong but that believing something is right makes it right and vice versa (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 41). Protagoras (485-420 B.C.) was the most popular Sophist who proposed that man is the measure of all things, meaning that man determines whether something is true or untrue and hence, truth depends on the perceiver not physical reality (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 41). The context of this perspective of the nature of truth is that Protagoras lived in the Periclean democracy where skills for effective communication were valuable to own especially in the political sphere (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 42) where some beliefs were more advantageous to utilitarian harmony than others. Hence, Protagoras was primarily interested in teaching effective argumentation to demonstrate the practicality of the relativity of truth. Socrates (470-399 B.C.) disagreed with the Sophists’ view that no truth exists beyond personal opinion. In the second century A.D., a school of thought named Skepticism promoted suspension of judgment and preferred to say ‘This is how things appear to me† rather than to claim having arrived at irrevocable truth (Hergenhahn, 2009). They were of the view that dogmatists constantly fought amongst themselves and were always agitated unlike the Skeptics who sought a life of peace and lived by two primary guides: appearances (sensations and feelings) and social convention (Hergenhahn, 2009). Displaying a similarity with the Sophists and the Skeptics, the Cynics such as Diogenes (412-323) advocated individualism and that true happiness depended on self-sufficiency and living a life that was natural, rejecting any type of control, be it bodily or social control. The theme of moving away from absolute truth and towards a relativistic conception of truth, individual feelings, opinions, social convention or whatever ‘truth’ brings gain (e.g., political status or living peaceably with others) will manifest itself again throughout history. Instrumental theory of truth: Profitability as criteria for truth William James (1842-1910) was of the view that ideas become true as long as they help people satisfactorily relate with other parts of one’s experience (De Waal, 2005, p. 43). James proposes that it is far from essential for our thoughts, beliefs or in other words, conceptions of truth, to copy reality. Hence, he opposes the singularity of truth and posits that multiple, though different beliefs are acceptable. In contrast, there can only be one truth for the empiricists and the rationalists since truth is the perfect copy of reality (De Waal, 2005, p. 47). Based on pragmatic principles, James proposes that any hypothesis cannot be rejected if there are useful results that come from it. Pragmatism is hence a principle that views any ‘truth’ as true as long as it profits. In other words, the pragmatist’s notion of truth is that beliefs originating from within one’s self but does not copy anything without the believer will still count as true when these lead people to directions that are worthwhile (De Waal, 2005, p. 50). The theme of moving away from a singular truth independent of the knower and towards whichever concept, idea or belief brings profit is a pattern seen even during the Early Greek Philosophers and Hellenistic and Roman Psychology. A profit-focused approach to handling truth, as proposed by the pragmatists, will strongly permeate and an underlying principle in future philosophies and approaches to psychology such as romanticism, existentialism, humanistic and postmodern psychology. Romantic and existential philosophy: Feelings, human choice and freedom In the late 18th century, an artistic and intellectual movement named Romanticism rebelled against Enlightenment rationality that overemphasized linear and the investigation of causes by trying to add feelings and intuition to rationality (Schneider, 1998). Romanticism emphasized the wholeness of experience via implicit processes such as affect, intuition, kinesthesia, imagination as well as the descriptions of these processes (Schneider, 1998). Rousseau was of the view that facts of history were of less importance than what values can be learned from them and that history should be considered as a collection of fables (Rousseau, 1762 as cited in Robinson, 2008). This type of thinking is seen again in Postmodernist thinking later on in history although to Rousseau, historical facts were not subjective but unknowable because of human error and interpretation. In psychology, romanticism is manifested in orientations of existential-humanistic, hermeneutical, narrative, and transpersonal psychologies (Schneider, 1998). Carl Rogers of the school of humanistic psychology, whose thoughts will be further explored later on in this paper, has much similarity with the romantics since experience is Rogers’ highest authority and makes decisions based on what feels [emphasis mine] right, valuable or worth doing (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 593). Like romanticism, existentialism stresses subjective experience. The existentialists (18th and 19th centuries) encourage us humans to consider the meaning of living authentically, in one’s own personal way (Oaklander, 1992). If one chooses freely, one chooses authentically and leads an authentic life. Since there are no objective values for the existentialist, it depends more on how one chooses rather than what their choice is. An existential philosopher, Kierkegaard proposed that each person’s life individually has its own self-determined meaning. Subjectivity is truth, that is, the person’s beliefs define that person’s reality (Oaklander, 1992, p. 577). Though the existentialist philosophers differ in their views in a few aspects of their thinking, one common theme is the emphasis on human freedom and choice and the related slogan of Sartre that ‘existence precedes essence’ which means that humans have no prepackaged nature or essence but that we are is what we choose to be (Oaklander, 1992). In other words, subjectivity must be the starting point (Oaklander, 1992). Sartre also says that â€Å"Man is nothing else but what he makes of himself. Such is the first principle of existentialism. It is also what is called subjectivity†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Influenced by existential philosophy, a brand of contemporary psychology which has the key concepts of freedom, individuality, authenticity and responsibility emerged called existential psychology (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 574). The man who is generally considered to be the bridge between existential philosophy and existential psychology is Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) who is of the view that there is no ‘ultimate truth’ but emphasizes interpretation and that there is no ‘real meaning’ behind a phenomenon (Daitz, 2011). He proposed that humans choose nature of their own existence and it is worthy of notice that Heidegger chose to be committed to Nazism (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 574). The theme of moving away from a singular truth independent of the knower and towards â€Å"personal truth† as self-defined by individuals as well as the unfortunate consequence of individuals freely choosing what they think is right or desirable which may conflict with what society views as desirable. This will manifest itself again with slight differences in humanistic and postmodern psychology. Humanistic psychology: An application of subjective truth In the early 1960s, humanistic psychology, a new human science that would study humans as aware, choosing and emotional beings, appeared in reaction to traditional scientific approaches to psychology (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 571). Unlike the two existing schools of psychology, behaviorism and psychoanalysis, which assume determinism in explaining human behavior, humanistic psychology assumes humans are free to choose their own existence and that subjective reality is the most important cause of behavior (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 571). A basic tenet of humanistic psychology is that subjective reality is the primary guide for human behavior (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 586). Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) was of the view that humanistic science should allow the individual to be freer and more inner determined (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 586). What he deemed as self-actualization is what humans achieve when they are true to their own nature (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 587). Carl Rogers (1902-1987) also proposed that a person who is likely to live a fulfilling life is motivated by his true inner feelings instead of beliefs, traditions and values imposed by others outside the individual (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 593). Rogers started the movement of Person-Centered therapy which stress an essential trust in the experiential world of the client and stress three conditions to promote the client’s growth: congruence (genuineness on the therapist’ part), true empathy, unconditional positive regard. A limitation that Owen (1999) notes in his analysis of both psychoanalysis and person-centred therapy is the conflict for the person-centred therapist to both communicate unconditional positive regard as well as congruence with a negative feeling about a client. In other words, prizing the client and also at the same time, being honest with personal feelings towards client. This poses a question of what a therapist should rightly do when being honest also means being non-empathic and withholding unconditional positive regard from the client. This problem of congruency undeniably stems from the theory of truth and its subjective nature since what the therapist believes to be true and what the client believes to be true are both equally ‘true’ if the assumption is that the individual self-defines truth. Postmodernism approaches: Contemporary development of the theory of truth Modernists believe in objective reality that exists independent of any attempt to observe it whereas postmodernists believe in subjective realities that do not exist independent of observational processes (Corey, 2005). Postmodernism is similar to the romantics, existentialists, the Sophists, and Skeptics and aspects of James’ psychology in that there multiple truths and these vary with individual experience, thus paving the way for postmodernism. According to Schneider (1998), the postmodernist were different from the romantics in that postmodernists promote a relativistic chaos when this conflicted with the sensibility of Romanticism (Schneider, 1998). The Romantics assumed knowledge as determinate and argued for the universality of autonomous experience while postmodernism assumes it as indeterminate and relativistic, thus fragmenting knowledge and experience (Webb, 2006). Similar to James’ pragmatism, the postmodernist is of the view that a problem exists only when people agree there is a problem needing to be addressed. Narrative therapy is an application of the Postmodernist approach to psychology and encourages clients to see their stories from different perspectives (Corey, 2005). The client’s reality is focused on without disagreeing whether it is accurate or rational (Weishaar, 1993 as cited in Corey, 2005). Unlike traditional therapists who see the client as the problem, the narrative therapists believe that the problem is the problem (Corey, 2005). This separation of client from problem allows one to take a stance against specific storylines, be hopeful in generating a more positive, healing story and thus reducing self-blame. The therapist searches for times when the client made a choice and times when the client was successful (Corey, 2005, p. 403). Very similar to the assumptions of the Cynics and particularly the Romantics, the Postmodernist approach is based on the optimistic assumption that people are able and that they possess alternative stories that can enhance their lives (Corey, 2005, p. 403). The nature of truth and the approach to psychology: Future research direction Within the United States and internationally, Kirschenbaum and Jourdan (2005) carried out a survey that found an increasing number of therapists who identify themselves as â€Å"eclectic† or â€Å"integrative† amongst Carl Rogers’ client-centered/person-centered therapists over the past 30 years. In his writing on the topic of romanticism’s potential in complementing psychology, Schneider (1998) writes that experimental research, whether in hypothesis-making or verification, cannot fully replace romantic insights and needs to refer back to qualitative data that Romantics emphasize (Schneider, 1998). Hence, there are advantages in employing research as well as therapy methodology that take into account aspects of the intuitive and emotional aspect of human beings that romanticism emphasizes. In view of the advantages, Schneider also writes about the implications for therapists in training. He proposes the provision of rich and sensitive qualitative descriptions of their clients in addition to treatment plans that are problem-oriented or behavioral in focus (Schneider, 1998). Therapists in training should also pay attention to emotional, kinesthetic, and cognitive experiences of clients. Besides just assessing progress toward therapy goals, the meaning of therapy goals for clients should also be considered. Schneider is of the view that therapist with the full range of experiential data about their clients would be in an optimal position to collate essential data for a treatment plan. Hence, research should be done to measure the effectiveness of this approach to therapy in addition to (i.e., eclectic approaches) or instead of traditional approaches. In his comparison of person-centred therapy with psychodynamic therapy, Owen (1999) notes the possibility of conflict that person-centred therapists might face in trying to be congruent to their own personal feelings while at the same time, being non-judgmental and providing unconditional positive regard. Further research should be carried out in the area of long-term consequences to the therapist and to the client as well as strategies that can be employed when there is a conflict in the congruence of the therapist and the therapist’ provision of unconditional positive regard. Research may also include investigating the incorporation of one aspect of the psychodynamic approach which is neutrality (neither making interpretations nor providing unconditional positive regard) towards the client’s sharing of his personal experience or thoughts (Owen, 1999). Neutrality allows for a full range of emotions including negative emotions of the client. Conclusion Whether truth is absolute and independent of the knower and perceiver has been supported and argued against since the period of the early Greek philosophers. Similar themes that focus on the human individual to evaluate and make their own choices, define their own meaning and ultimately, define and act upon what is the nature of truth and the truth itself recur time and time again whether in the form of an emphasis on affect like the Romantics or Postmodernist who selects part of a narrative, whether accurate or true, to put it to good use in helping the individual cope during therapy. The implications of the position taken on the nature of truth have been demonstrated throughout history in major schools of philosophy, psychology and in this paper. Future speculation of this theory of truth is that, after certain negative events that will happen in future times as a result of pragmatic and postmodern thinking, a reaction against relativistic and individualized conceptions of truth that may take a shape of fundamentalism may return to schools of philosophy and the social sciences. References Conway, J. B. (1992). Presidential address: A world of differences among psychologists. Canadian Psychology, 33(1), 1-23. Corey, G. (2005). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy (7th ed.). California: Thomson Learning Inc. Daitz, L. (2011). Understanding, truth or resolve? Considering the ‘aim’ of existential psychotherapy and the approaches of van Deurzen and Spinelli. Journal of the Society for Existential Analysis, 22(1), 140-149. De Waal, C. (2005). On Pragmatism. California: Thomson Wadsworth Hergenhahn, B. R. (2009). An introduction to the history of psychology (6th ed.). California: Cengage learning. Kendler, H. H. (2005). Psychology and phenomenology: A clariï ¬ cation. American Psychologist, 60(4), 318–324 Kirschenbaum, H. & Jourdan, A. (2005). The current status of Carl Rogers and the person-centered approach. Educational Publishing Foundation, 42(1), 37–51. doi: 10.1037/0033-3204.42.1.37 Oaklander, L. N. (1992). Existentialist phi losophy: An introduction. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Owen, I. R. (1999). Exploring the similarities and differences between person-centred and psychoanalytic therapies. British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 27(2), 165-178 doi: 0306-9885/99/020165-14 Robinson, P. (2008). Jean-Jacques Rousseau and history: Moral truth at the expense of facticity. Rethinking History, 12(3), 417–431. doi: 10.108 0/13642520802193 288 Schneider, K. J. (1998). Toward a science of the heart: Romanticism and the revival of psychology. American Psychologist, 53(3), 277-289 Webb, R. K. (2006). From romantic humanist to postmodern pedagogy: How the alien becomes normative in contemporary education. Radical Pedagogy. Retrieved from http://radicalpedagogy.icaap.org/content/issue8_2/webb.html

Problem gambling Essay

Gambling is something that people are capable of enjoying once in a while, but for others it can turn into an activity that is hard to control. Gambling is the act of risking money, property, or something of value on an activity that has an uncertain outcome. This can include, lotteries and bingos, card games, going to casinos, buying multiple kinds of tickets, making bets, and games such as pool, golf, or arm wrestling. Gambling can be legal as well as illegal, any sort of gambling managed by the government or by regulations set by the government is legal, and any sort of gambling that is not managed by regulations is illegal. Gambling doesn’t have one specific cause, and the cause can be different for everyone. People who have bipolar disorder, Parkinson’s disease and restless leg syndrome have been observed to develop an addiction to gambling. Bipolar disorder because exorbitant spending is known to be a symptom and can take form in gambling. Parkinson’s and restless leg syndrome, because of the theory that the medications can increase the activity of dopamine in the brain as a culprit. Other causes can include, emotional conditions, schizophrenia, mood problems, antisocial personality disorder, and alcohol or drug addictions. People who have problems with gambling usually spend a lot of time doing so and don’t leave much time for family, friends, and important events. Bigger bets begin to get placed and they happen more often, which can lead to growing debts causing the person to borrow money from friends or family. Those with problems can’t fully stop gambling but would rather â€Å"cut back,† and can also become bad-tempered, depressed, withdrawn, or restless if they aren’t able to gamble. Gambling can have some very serious effects on the gambler, as well as those around him/her. Debt, bankruptcy, poverty, theft, prostitution, and suicide issues can all be side effects of gambling. Families with people those who have an addiction to gambling are more at risk of experiencing domestic violence and child abuse. And children of compulsive gamblers have a higher chance of developing depression, behavior problems, and substance abuse. There are many reasons for gambling and usually it is for fun or excitement, to escape or forget problems, to win money, or to feel challenged. In Canada, gaming is the largest  entertainment industry being the same size as movies, TV, recorded music, and professional sports combined. During 2007, 70.7% of adults gamble, and the most common gaming activities among Canadian adults are lotteries and instant-win tickets. About 3.2& of adults, and 2.2% of youth, are affected by moderate to severe problem gambling. A survey conducted in 2001-2006 suggests that the provinces, which have the highest rates of gambling, are Saskatchewan and Manitoba, and Quebec and New Brunswick have the lowest. Gambling can be overcome, as there are multiple ways to fix your problem. Many participate in gamblers anonymous or go to psychotherapy. Medications have been discovered which help reduce the urge to gamble, or thrill that comes with it. Financial counseling and self-help interventions are also ways to go about fixing your addiction. 70% of people who have gambling problems most likely also have another psychiatric issue; therefore they may need more than one type of treatment for their best chance to overcome their problem(s). My personal viewpoint on gambling is that, it’s not always a bad thing if you can keep it under control, and if it is legal. I think it’s a good way to have fun if you know your limits. If you have gambling problems it can become quite serious, which in that case you need to get some sort of help and realize it is not the best lifestyle. After doing this report I realize that it is an important issue that I was not fully aware of, and that it can be harmful to ones present and future just as much as alcohol and drug addictions. Bibliography http://www.onhealth.com/gambling_addiction/article.htm https://dl.cssd.ab.ca/d2l/lms/content/viewer/view.d2l?tId=2157962&ou=1868624 http://www.problemgambling.ca/EN/Documents/FA_GamblingProblemGamblinginCanada.pdf

Sex Sexuality And Its Effect On Society - 1458 Words

The world in constantly evolving and ideas that were once seen as radical soon become a societal norm. Sex and sexuality have often been a taboo topic, but are a central part of history because life itself would not exists without sex. Since sexuality, and even more so same-sex sexuality, were not often mentioned historically, there are many unknowns and inferencing must be done relatively often. Through the convergence of primary sources, such as court cases and diaries, and secondary sources such as essays and books, it is possible for historians to piece together the history of same-sex sexuality in Canada, and more specifically, Alberta. Although society has progressed to become more accepting and understanding, there are also many things that remain constant from early 20th century Alberta to Alberta today. Power Authority Almost every relationship has an unequal distribution of power, but this on its own is neither negative or positive. Imbalance of power become an issue when those in power exercise their control to exploit and disadvantage others. Unfortunately for men having sex with men in Alberta in the 1900’s, they had very little power in relation to the government and police. Police were actively surveilling parks, bars, and even opening mail and listening to phone conversations in order to find and condemn men seeking out sex with men or men suspected of looking for sex with men. In Alberta in 1912, men such as David Smith were encouraged byShow MoreRelatedGlobalization And Sexuality1247 Words   |  5 Pagescharacters. Sexuality refers to how people relate to sexual activities or perceive sexual matters. Sexuality may differ from one culture to the other, but the cultures are likely to influence each other’s sexual beliefs and orientation. Globalization has had an extensive influence on the changes witnessed in sexuality across the globe. It is through globalization that sexual purposes have gotten new meanings. Some of the topics which come up as a link between globalization and sexuality are sexualRead MoreThe History Of Sexuality By Michel Foucault1729 Words   |  7 Pageschapter of the book entitled â€Å"The History of Sexuality† by Michel Foucault seeks to explain the traditional and modern issues regarding sexuality. Michel argues out that during the 17th century, sexuality was not a big deal, and various sexual acts were pursued more or less deliberately. Primarily, there was no taboo concerning sex and people of all age groups including children were well aware of sexual behaviours. Michel then points out that sexuality was now shifted to the homes where it was meantRead MoreSocio-Cultural Influences On Sexuality. Socio-Cultural1156 Words   |  5 PagesSocio-Cultural Influences on Sexuality Socio-cultural influence plays a major role in sexual behaviors. It gives a better comprehension on why men are men and women are women. These socio-cultural are influenced by physical, emotional, cultural and economic aspects. Time and time again research has proven that socio-cultural influences have a significant role in human sexuality. Culture is the manner of life of the people. Thus, culture shapes the ideas of what behaviors are acceptable for men andRead MoreMedia Influence On The Media993 Words   |  4 Pagesinfluence the most about the sexuality. Media influence me by showing different sexual stories in the newspaper, by posting videos and picture on the website, and by watching different sexual videos on movies influence the most about sexuality. It is a positive influence because we can get the knowledge about sexual precaution and awareness. Television programs influence about sexual values most like, precaution about sex, like HIV or another such a dangerous risk by sex. So people can get the knowledgeRead MoreGender, Sex, And Sexuality1363 Words   |  6 PagesMr.DiGulio Honor Freshman English-3 26 April 2016 Gender, Sex, and Sexuality Gender, sex, and sexuality are not new concepts in today’s society. These three terms have been around for a long time, but they have only just started to surface and be taught and understood by the nation. Slowly society is learning that sex does not determine one’s sexual orientation and gender and who you are is nothing to be ashamed about. A person’s sexuality has been with them ever since and before they were born. WhileRead MoreSocial Constructionism : Sociology, History, And Philosophy940 Words   |  4 PagesSexuality is the capacity of human beings to have sexually stimulating responses towards another human being. A person’s sexual orientation can influence their sexual interest for another person. However, in society, many people want to see the opposite sex dating the opposite sex, such as a female dating a male. Whenever someone acts against that notion, such as a female dating a female or a male dating a male, people would see that as being deviant. This connects us back to history when differentRead MoreDiscourse of Sex and the Creation of Docile Bodies Essay1129 Words   |  5 PagesDiscourse of Sex and the Creation of Docile Bodies Subjection is a process that operates in society, and according to sociologist Michel Foucault, can be applied to a multiplicity of discourses. Foucault explains that the beginning of the nineteenth century marked the age of sexual repression and censorship, which became a time of subjection through exerting disciplinary control over a docile population. In his The Introduction to the History of Sexuality, Foucault explains how the scientificationRead MoreSexuality : Human Sexuality, Sexual Orientation And Sexual Behavior1193 Words   |  5 Pages HUMAN SEXUALITY ReNata Shaw APUS: Human Sexuality Assignment 2 Resubmit Dr. Foster November 29, 2015 Human Sexuality Introduction Sexuality encompasses aspects in a person’s life that involves sex and gender identity, sexual orientation and sexual behavior. It encompasses the physical, social and psychological aspects of a person’s sexual behavior. It underpins what an individual is, affects the individual’s life wholesomely and is unique to each and every individualRead MoreEssay on The Meaning of Sexuality in Todays Society1331 Words   |  6 PagesMeaning of Sexuality in Todays Society In today’s society things are being expressed and experienced at younger ages, than ever before in our time. Children and teenagers are discovering their sexuality at very early ages. Sexuality is the discovering of who you are and what makes you different from everybody else. Basically, discovering and accepting your sexuality is the gateway to adulthood.. Sexuality is the most profound meeting place of nature and culture. (Bordo 1) Sexuality permitsRead MoreMedia Is The Most Accessible Form Of Information1643 Words   |  7 Pagesthat 77% of adolescents are watching a YouTube channel and 1 over 3 of them is a viewer of music channel. More over, 91.4% of teenagers think it is a one of positive aspect of our society. However, as with anything there are negative aspects too. According to them, one of the biggest problems rising in the field is sexuality. Much research has been done relating media promotes and encourage violence and this is widely accepted theory. By contrast, only few studies have been conducted to find out the